Apache Culture

           The Apache people that lived in the southwest in the late 19^th century had a very interesting way of life.  They had specific beliefs and practices that they followed and passed down from generation to generation.  From everyday life to special occasions, the apache had unique customs.  Raising their young, learning to go on horse raids, marriage, divorce, death and burial were all taught by their elders and their parents to the newest generation.  They were a very family oriented society, and their way of living reflected this in many ways.

            Most Apaches were part of a smaller band of families that only united with their larger tribe for special occasions.  They typically lived in tee pees that were easily set up and transported as they followed the herds of buffalo which they relied on for survival.  Women were in charge of setting up the tee pee “averaging fourteen feet in diameter and large enough to house an average family of five to eight persons, it could be set up by a woman in less than fifteen minutes and taken down in three (Mails, 17).”  They grouped themselves together by family and larger extended family.  Unrelated families would live together in a local group or band that was large enough to sustain itself, and perform ceremonies.  Each family had a head male and the most influential of these head males would gain enough respect and become the chief.  The title was not inherited and could easily change if the people found someone else to be a better fit (Sturtevant, 369).

            When marriage was to occur in Apache culture a man’s relatives usually gave gifts to the girl’s family first, and their elders consulted eachother about the choice.  The people involved in the marriage were generally consulted and their opinions were respected.  The man would join her family and agree to protect and serve them.  He was to obey her parents and treat them with great respect.  Often times wealthy men would take more than one wife.  Because of the difficulties associated with joining the family, they would often be sisters (Sturtevant, 370).  Divorce was allowed if a man was found to be cruel or lazy, but often if the woman was misbehaving her parents would discipline her in order to keep the man around to help out.

            Women were in charge of gathering, children, the home, clothing, gathering fuel, and cooking, while the men were hunting and crafting weapons.  There was much overlap however, and both men and women were capable of helping or actually performing a task when it needed to be done.  For example the grandfather, maternal uncle, and father helped to raise the children and the men were capable of repairing clothing and cooking especially when they were out on the hunt or raiding (Sturtevant, 371).   The Apache knew how to live off the land and use many of the plants that grew in the southwest.  They collected plants to dry and store and fruits from cactus as well.  They used things like mesquite and acorns to make flour for bread by grinding them down (Robinson, 167).  They also collected wild sweet potatoes, onions and other things that grew on the plains.  They were very choosy about the meats that they would eat.  Their aversion to certain animals stemmed from the danger they believed that those animals carried with them.  The women wove baskets to carry food and supplies in that were cured and preserved (Robinson, 170). 

            The care of the infant in Apache culture was a very particular practice.  They had many rules and other traditions that had to be followed for the health of both the baby and the mother.  Advice was given to the mother by elders in the tribe and was passed down and followed because they knew best.  When caring for their infants they were very particular about the age that certain things can be done such as allowing the feet to be extended before the navel is healed (Metcalf, 21).”  They were also very careful to make sure that the baby was comfortable at all times, and they used very soft blankets and hides to care for their baby.  They carried their babies in an elaborate basketwork cradle that goes on their backs, and is decorated with many beads, flannel, and buckskin straps to hold the baby in (Bandelier, 88).”  Many of the things such as diapers, baby powder and cradles were made by the mother from things in nature.  They were also very particular about the procedures for things, and if one was to vary from these it was thought to cause illness.  Very specific rules were followed to ensure the current baby as well as the next would be healthy and normal.  Various ceremonies and remedies were used when a child was ill to restore their health.  Every child also goes through a “ceremony of the earth which is a long-life ceremony (Metcalf, 25).”  It is a baptism like ceremony that occurs exactly 4 days after the child’s birth and is considered a very important aspect of an infant’s life.  This is also a time that the family and friends will come together and celebrate, and eat together (Metcalf, 25).

            When a young man was of a certain age, he would be deemed ready to go on horse raids with the other men of the tribe.  This was a very specific and orderly process that required great discipline and training.  A young man would have the help of his entire family to get ready for the journey.  It was guided by a leader that gave very strict orders to follow on the way to the horses, and during the actual raid.  The event required meticulous planning for dances, rituals, and painting of their faces to get them ready to go. “Prior to raids and war missions, special dances and ceremonies were held to enlist the support of the supernatural (Chavis, 6).”  It was a dangerous event that held the very real possibility that a man may not come home (Metcalf, 87).  They raided to acquire goods, especially horses, not to have a confrontation, fighting was not the goal (Sturtevant, 375). 

            Men and women both served as shamans, herbalist and leaders of traditional ceremonies, and some were believed to have supernatural powers.   “Our medicine men had healing herbs, but without the prayers and the faith in Ussen they were not effective (Robinson, 177).”  They treated illnesses and wounds and had power from Ussen, their name for god.  This power was utilized in rituals and procedures as well.  Witchcraft was a feared form of power that came from using it for evil.  It could cause long term illnesses.  “Sickness and misfortune could also be caused by the anger of a deity or by failure to treat respectfully some personified natural force, such as lightning (Sturtevant, 373).”  They also believe that there were animals that were dangerous to people if they were touched, smelled or even seen.  Witchcraft was believed to be used to send the dangerous coyote, bear, owl, and snake to have encounters with people (Sturtevant, 373).

            When an Apache death occurs it is a very serious matter.  Death was not mentioned in normal conversation because it is very taboo.  When a person died they wore specific clothes that showed that they were in mourning.  Bothe males and females received equal attention when they died, and utmost respect was had in every situation..  They person that died was prepared for burial by dressing them in their best clothes and painting their face appropriately.  They were buried with certain items that were important, and all of their other possessions were burned or destroyed, and no mementoes were kept.  They did not want to be reminded of them, and for the same reason, the grave site was kept secret from all except those few that buried them.  After the person was buried the people who handled them went through a special cleansing with “ghost medicine” (Metcalf, 152).  They believed that after death everyone, good or bad, went to the underworld.  They would continue their life at the same age with no pain or sorrow.  They went through the same rituals and affairs, but everything was better.  The believed that you entered through a hole in the earth which has a pile of sand that cannot be climbed back up (Metcalf, 153).

            Overall the Apache were a very spiritual people that were deeply connected to nature.  They had many traditions and beliefs that were passed down from generation to generation.  They were a very family oriented society that stayed and traveled together throughout their lives.  The way they were able to live off of the land and be successful in the plains was very impressive, and goes to show the value of traditions and listening to their elders.

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Primary Sources

Bandelier, Adolph F., The Southwest Journals of Adolph F. Bandelier 1883-1884 , ed. Charles H. Lange and Carroll L. Riley (Albequerque: The University of New Mexico Press, 1970)

Metcalf, Richard P.,  The Native American People of the West. (West Haven: Pendulum Press Inc., 1973)

Robinson, Sherry, Apache Voices: Their Stories as told to Eve Ball (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000)

Secondary Sources

Basso, Keith H., and Morris E. Opler, Apachean Culture History And Ethnology (Tuscon, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press, 1971)

Chavis, Ben, All-Indian Rodeo: ATransformation of Western Apache Tribal Warfare and Culture, Vol. 9, No. 1 (University of Minnesota Press: 1993)

Cuevas, Lou, Apache Legends: Songs of the Wind Dancer (Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph Publishers, 1991)

Kessel, William B., White Mountain Apache Reflections, Journal of the Southwest, Vol. 47, No. 1(2005)

Mails, Thomas E., The Mystic Warriors of the Plains (New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1991)

Melody, Michael E., The Apache, Indians of North America Heritage Edition (Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 2006)

Sturtevant, William C., Ed. Handbook of North American Indians. Volume 10. (Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institute, 1983)

Signifigance of Major Apache Chiefs

            The Chiefs of the Apache tribes were the main representatives of the Apaches to outside viewers.  The chiefs were the only members of the tribe that had any real connection to the American army and negotiations with them.  The Apache leaders reflect the well-being of the tribe and strength of the tribe through their actions and position. Therefore, only the strongest and most experienced Apache warriors were chosen to be chiefs; it was not hereditary. There were many prominent and monumental chiefs during the years of the Apaches such as, Cochise, Geronimo, Naiche, Victorio, Nana, Mangas, and Chihuahua.  Three chiefs that stood out the most and were a part of the more significant changes in the Apache tribe are Cochise, Victorio, and Geronimo. 

            Cochise represents one of the earliest defining moments for the Apache and American relations.  In February 1861, Cochise received word that he was to visit and American Army official.  Cochise was then accused of stealing cattle and a young boy.  Cochise had not stolen this boy but knew who really had.  Therefore, he offered to try and get the boy back himself from the correct captors.  The American Army proceeded to arrest Cochise, though.  In response, he fought his way out and fled but the Army still had his relatives that had joined him on the trip.  Cochise tried to plead for his relatives but after many failed attempts Cochise invaded the Army stations killing as he went.  He did not succeed in saving his relatives, though, because as soon as he killed an army official, the Lieutenant holding Cochise’s relatives killed each relative in retaliation.  This started a cycle of war between the Apache under Cochise and the Americans.   Before this event, the Apaches and Americans had been moving towards peaceful relations, but this quickly turned into a hostile relationship.  Sergeant Bernard, and ex-Apache, describes Cochise by saying, “This Indian was at peace until betrayed and wounded by white men. He now, when spoken to about peace, points to his scars and says, ‘I was at peace with the whites until they tried to kill me for what other Indians did; I now live and die at war with them’” (Lockwood, Frank. The Apache Indians). Cochise had lost all trust in the Americans.  He had seen his people innocently killed for too long and the event in February of 1861 was the last straw for Cochise.  As the Americans and Apaches were at war with each other, Cochise tried to make several camps for his people.  This became harder and harder, though, as the Americans continued to drive the Apache away from each camp they tried to make.  This forced Cochise to split his tribe into smaller bands.  By the time Cochise died in 1875, most Apache bands were either confined to reservations or had fled to Mexico.  In 1873, though, General Lockwood had attempted to make agreements with Cochise.  General Lockwood described Cochise as, “Though born and bred a savage, Cochise was a man of distinction.  His nature was not simple and shallow but very complex and passionate” (Terrell, John Upton. Apache Chronicle).   These agreements between Lockwood , Cochise, and eventually General Howard allowed what was left of Cochise’s people to live peacefully on a reservation.

            Victorio was another prominent leader of the Apache Tribe. He was chief from the 1860s-1880.  Under Victorio was the well-known Apache leader, Geronimo.  After Victorio died, Geronimo became chief until1909.  A defining moment between the Americans and Geronimo and Victorio was in 1877.  In 1867-77, Geronimo and Victorio had been raiding the Mexicans.  During this time, American leaders described them as, “daring, dangerous, desperate, cruel, unyielding, powerful, influential men whose command was law” (Terrell, John Upton. Apache Chronicle).  The American army discovered their raids and sent word for them to come to Apache Pass under General Clum.  To Geronimo and Victorio, this appeared to be for friendly relations but were instead captured by the Americans.  They then released Victorio and kept Geronimo for another four months.  While Geronimo was still being held, Victorio tried to take his people back to their native land and the Americans allowed this but only for a year before attempting to bring them back to Apache Pass.  Victorio fought these attempts and soon fled with his men.  In 1879, Victorio was caught and charged for stealing a horse.  He escaped and resolved to never be out under the mercy of a white man again.  Victorio did not like the Americans to have control over him and was quickly losing respect and trust for them.  This led to a deep hatred for the Americans by Victorio and he began a ruthless killing spree.  At this point, the Apaches were also at were with the Mexicans.  In 1882, Victorio was killed by the Mexicans and Geronimo became chief.  In 1884, after much fighting on Geronimo’s behalf, a step towards peace between the Apaches and Americans.   Geronimo signed an agreement with General Crook of the American Army.  General Crook allowed Geronimo and the Apaches to return to their territory and work the land for the Americans.  During this time, Geronimo and his men worked the land like they were supposed to yet the Americans made them out to be evil.  After discovering the lies the Americans were spreading, Geronimo and his men fled out of fear.  The Americans thought they fled out of violence when really Geronimo fled to avoid confrontation.  Geronimo described this time by stating, “I was living peacefully with my family…taking care of my people, and perfectly contented.  I don’t know where those bad stories first came from…I was behaving well…I don’t know what was the matter with the people in charge of us.  They knew this to be so, and yet they said I was a bad man and the worst man there; but what had I done? I was…doing just what General Crook had told me to do and trying to follow his advice…I was praying to the light and to the darkness, to God and to the sun, to let me live quietly there with my family. I don’t know what the reason was that people should peak boldly of me.  Very often there are stories put in the newspapers that I am to be hanged…When a man tries to do right, such stories ought not to be in newspapers.  There are very few of my men left now…There are very few of us left.” (Brown, Dee. Bury My Heart At Wounded Knee).  Crook recruited Chief Cochise to look for Geronimo.  In 1886, Geronimo surrendered.  He then attempted to flee again, though, but was quickly discovered and surrendered for the last time.  Geronimo and his people were taken to Fort Marion, Florida.  Then in 1894, Geronimo moved his people to the reservation at Fort Sill where he did in 1909.  While with the Americans, Geromimo’s people were then Americanized and taught to be “proper”.  This is described in General Miles’ Annual Report by the US Army, 1886.  Geronimo is considered the last of the Apache chiefs. 

            Thomas Fitzpatrick, an American official passed through the Apache are once led by these prominent chiefs.  He described it by saying, “The Indians are ravaging the territory throughout, murdering and carrying off the habitants to a much greater extent than heretofore; and what would seem very strange, they carry their hostilities (except when they want presents, and then they are as gentle as lambs) almost within gunshot of the head quarters of the army” (Fitzpatrick, Thomas. Appendix to the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs). He also admits that the laws between the Americans and Apaches is not being help up well and there is too much leniency which is a factor enhancing the conflicts in the area.  Other officials in the area described the citizens living there as a “terror-stricken class of people” (Miles, Nelson Appleton.  Apache Indians Annual Report by US Army, 1886).  There seemed to be a large case of mistrust and misunderstanding between the Americans and Apaches causing these opinions.

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Sources:

Primary Sources:

Curtis, Edward S.  Apache Camp. The North American Indian, 1906. Bury My Heart At Wounded Knee. Dee Brown. Canada: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970.

Fitzpatrick, Thomas. Appendix to the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. United States Bureau of Indian Affairs.  Microfilm reel. Washington : Wendell and Van Benthuysen, 1848. reel 557, no. 5668.1

Miles, Nelson Appleton.  Apache Indians Annual Report by US Army, 1886. Microfilm reel. Albuquerque, NM : s.n., 1886. Microfilm.  Reel 553 no. 5578.

Randall, Frank.  Geronimo (1839-1909) or One Who Yawns. 1886. Bury My Heart At Wounded Knee. Dee Brown. Canada: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970.

Safford, Anson Peasley Keeler.  Brinley, Charles H. Campell, John Goulder.   Arizona, Legislative Assembly.  Resources of Arizona Territory with a description of the Indian tribes; ancient ruins; Cochise, Apache chief; Antonio, Pima chief; stage and wagon roads; trade and commerce, etc. Microfilm reel.  San Francisco, Francis & Valentine, 1871.  Microfilm. 1 reel. 35 mm.

Confernce of Crook With Nachez and Geronimo. Lockwood, Frank C. The Apache Indians. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1938.

Victorio (1825-1880), Apache Warrior. Bury My Heart At Wounded Knee. Dee Brown. Canada: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970.

Secondary Sources:

Brown, Dee. Bury My Heart At Wounded Knee. Canada: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970.

Terrell, John Upton. Apache Chronicle. New York: World Publishing Company, 1972.

Lockwood, Frank C. The Apache Indians. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1938.

The Apache and American Relationship

            The relationship between the Apache tribe and the United States government would have started when the U.S. obtained what is today the American Southwest in the mid-1800s following the Mexican-American War.  Due to the lack of understanding of the Apaches, the U.S. began to suppress the tribe both culturally and militaristically.  This would lead to armed conflicts between the two, known as the Apache Wars.  The conflicts would reach their high point in the last half of the nineteenth century and would come to an end with Geronimo’s surrender in 1886.  For the Apaches that were not killed during the period, life would be subject to either imprisonment in different parts of the United States or a deprived living on a reservation (D.L. 105).  The relationship between the two was extremely tumultuous during the period and would never truly come to a mutual understanding. 

The Apaches were known as a “warrior culture” and would illustrate that very reputation to the American military through various uprisings across the Southwest.  The United States would have more campaigns and come into more conflicts with this particular tribe than any other.  There would be at least 214 battles with the U.S. Army and over 500 casualties (Gregory 363).  In many cases, the various militia groups in the American Southwest would enlist the aid of members of other Native American tribes as scouts, especially during campaigns in the 1870s.  Pueblo Indians would be a primary resource for the U.S. government in subduing the Apaches (Albert 213-5).  The most intense fighting would occur during the 1880s prior to the capture of Geronimo.  One of the leading generals would even comment on how the Apache people were one of the most “difficult to suppress” and that it was “impossible with troops to catch the raiding parties” (Albert 224-5).

            There are numerous accounts of the Apache and their hostilities found in early settlers’ journals and government records from the period.  Many of these documents showcase the Apache people as bloodthirsty and barbaric.  Points of their “depredations and destruction of life” are highlighted with comments such as they had nearly killed “all” early pioneers and how “every industry and enterprise [had] been paralyzed” because of them (Arizona 3).  Affidavits describing the Apaches as “savages” and “hostile” can be found in every southwestern states’ legislature libraries.  Due to the promise of the government and the idea of Manifest Destiny, the pioneers truly believed that the Apaches were on their God-given land and pleaded with the government to step in and return the public domain that was so rightfully theirs.  References to how the Apaches had lived there for centuries hardly ever came up. 

It is not uncommon for government documents to go on for tens of pages with various affidavits discussing the horrifying atrocities committed by the Apaches.  Samuel Hughes, a clerk from Tucson discusses how two acquaintances, “‘Newton Israel and Hugh Kennedy were killed; two wagons loaded with merchandise, and seven mules were taken at the same time; the bodies of the men were badly mutilated and one of them burned; that life and property are unsafe on the public roads” (Arizona 8).  This one account demonstrates the Apaches not only as murderers, but also thieves and mutilators.  John C. Cremony, an interpreter to the U.S. Boundary Commission, further paints the Apache as a highly intelligent and conniving people.  He discusses how the Apaches only visit American camps for sinister reasons.  They are there pretending to beg only as reconnaissance.  “Their keen eyes omit nothing.  One’s arms and equipments, the number of your party, their cohesion and precaution…their system of defense in case of attack, and the amount of [possible] plunder” (John 79).  With countless examples of such violence creating hysteria across the nation, it was just a matter of time before the government would officially step in and put a stop to it.  There are also numerous stories in Arizona alone detailing the Apache warriors raiding farms taking all they could and destroying the rest.  Scalping and reports of the Indians kidnapping women and girls were all commonplace.   It was the destruction of Anglo-Americans’ livelihoods and the assault on their sense of safety that truly pushed for the government involvement.  With these acts being committed, there was of course no regard for the Apaches’ rights because they were perceived as less than human by many.  This led to extremely strained relationships, and many Anglos believed the only answer lied in the destruction of the people.

            Court cases for captured Apaches were also all but fair.  The criminal justice system was governed by Anglo-Americans that in many cases considered the Apaches to be a threat to their way of life.  Also, juries only ever consisted of white men that also fell in the above category.  Whites also considered Apaches as “social misfits” due to the fact they were of a different culture and spoke a distinctive language.  Due to this lack of understanding, one can easily see how Apaches could not receive a fair trial.  There are plenty of examples to show that jurors were more lenient with their verdicts on similar crimes when it came to white defendants rather than an Apache.  One case that demonstrates the inequalities the Apaches were faced with is U.S. v. Captain Jack.  Captain Jack was an Apache accused of murder of another Indian on tribal lands.  Everyone involved in his trial was white, and he could not even speak English.  He also had no understanding of the U.S. judicial process.  In addition to the argument that this should have been a tribal issue, Captain Jack was forced to go through a trial.  He was found guilty in the first trial, but it would be eventually overturned due to the fact the case was handled under the wrong jurisdiction.  Captain Jack would face other indictments before it was all said and done (Clare 32-5, 57).  There are numerous cases that ended in convictions of Apache men that were on trial.  This only further illustrates the unequal treatment and harsh relations the Apache people had with the state and national governments. 

            To better understand the relationship that would eventually foster between the Apaches and the United States, one does need to recall that the Apaches were of a warrior culture.  They were trained for war from early on in their childhoods and raiding was a key part of that training.  Raiding was also essential to the tribe’s survival in many cases.  They were also family-oriented so an attack on one was an attack on the entire tribe.  This became quite evident as more and more pioneers settled into the territory killing many of the Apaches they would come into contact with.  Their skills became truly legendary to the American military men that would constantly fight them.  General George Crook referred to the Apaches as the “‘tigers of the human race’”, while others had comments such as, “‘the thought of attempting to catch one of them in the mountains gave me a queer feeling of helplessness’” (Jason 126-7). 

At this time, extermination was the American policy toward the Apache tribe.  This policy would not so hastily leave the whites of the region even when President Grant tried to implement a policy geared towards peace in 1870.  Citizens of Tucson would end up massacring a group of peaceful Apache women and children in 1871.  Grant appointed General George Crook to prevent future cases of such events, but the whites that committed the atrocity essentially went without punishment.  The Apaches would of course later seek revenge (Jason 145).  This illustrates both the altering policy of the U.S. toward the Apaches, and the general picture of how the Apaches were being treated by the dominant society.  The relationship between the two also became more strained once certain groups were placed on reservations.  Besides the mere fact that the Apaches were being cheated by the military on their ration allotments, the rations for the tribes were in the first place were less than what was needed to survive.  The government was cheating them at every point, even by lying on the weight of cows they were issuing to the Apaches (Odie 40-2).  The agents of the Indian Bureau were also seen as extremely corrupt and were said to have “caused more misery and loss of life than all other causes combined” (Odie 44).  In response, outbreaks against the U.S. military by the Apache began to become common.  The government would soon respond with more troops and harsher penalties against the law breakers.

            At this point, one begins to see the ambiguous views of soldiers and government officials concerning the Apache question.  Mr. W.H.H. Llewellyn, a civilian in from Arizona, discusses that he wishes for the fair treatment of the Apaches and that the government should do the best they could for them, but he does not want the Apaches to be moved back into his region.  Mr. Llewellyn still believes the Apaches still present some danger to the whites in the Southwest.  Others, such General Crook and General Miles, disagree and hope for the Apaches to be taken back to reservations in the Southwest (U.S. “Removal…”).  Lieutenant Howard also recommended for the Apaches to be taken back to Arizona and be given land and farming equipment.  He also wants them to have the rights to the land they are given.  He goes further to say that it would be “criminal” of the government to keep the Apaches away from their land any longer (U.S. Senate “Message…”).

            The government would eventually set up reservations for the Apaches throughout the American Southwest.  The surrender of Geronimo in 1886 was the inevitable signal of the U.S. triumph over the Apache people.  They longer had no choice but to give in to what the U.S. saw as fit.  The Apache people would continue to be subject to the injustices and inequalities of the U.S. policy.  They would not even receive American citizenship until the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 (D.L. 108).

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Primary Sources

Arizona Legislative Assembly, “Memorial and Affidavits Showing Outrages Perpetrated by the Apache Indians in the Territory of Arizona for the Years 1869 and 1870,” (San Francisco:  Francis & Valentine Printers, 1871); http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ Sabin?dd=0&locID=stil74078&d1=SABCPA8394400&srchtp=a&c=1&an=SABCPA8394400&d2=3&docNum=CY3808153217&h2=1&af=RN&d6=3&ste=10&dc=tiPG&stp=Author&d4=0.33&d5=d6&ae=CY108153215 (accessed February 6, 2012)

           

John C. Cremony, Life Among the Apaches 1850-1868, (New Mexico:  The Rio Grande Press, Inc., 1868)

           

United States Bureau of Indian Affairs, “Indian Wars and Local Disturbances in the United States, 1782-1898,” (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Interior, 1921)

             

United States House of Representatives, “Difficulties with Indian tribes. Message from the President of the United States in answer to a resolution of the House of the 7th ultimo, asking for information relative to difficulties with various tribes of Indians,” (April 6, 1870); http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-search/we/Digital?p_action=doc&p_ theme= sset2&p_topdoc=1&p_docnum=1&p_sort=YMD_date:D&p_product=SERIAL&p_text_direct-0=document_id=%28%2010A33E865034CDC0%20%29&p_nbid= A5EJ57YUMTMyODgyMTM3OS4xOTk4NDg6MToxMjoxMzkuNzguMy4yMzk&p_docref= (accessed February 6, 2012)

           

United States Senate, “Message from the President of the United States, Transmitting a Letter of the Secretary of War and reports Touching the Apache Indians at Governor's Island,” (January 20, 1890); http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-search/we/Digital?p_ action= doc&p_theme=sset2&p_topdoc=1&p_docnum=1&p_sort=YMD_date:D&p_product=SERIAL&p_text_direct-0=document_id=%28%201107C58E64FA00E0%20%29& p_nbid=H55N4EVLMTMyODgyMzk2OS42MTU1MTU6MToxMjoxMzkuNzguMy4yMzk&p_docref= (accessed February 6, 2012)

           

United States House Committee on Indian Affairs, “Removal of the Apache Indian Prisoners,” (February, 10, 1890); Microform, call number: CIS Hrgs MF Gp 4--(51) HIn-1

           

Secondary Sources

Albert H. Schroeder, The Changing Ways of Southwestern Indians:  A Historic Perspective, (New Mexico:  The Rio Grande Press, Inc., 1973)

           

Claire V. McKanna Jr., The White Justice in Arizona:  Apache Murder Trials in the Nineteenth Century, (Lubbock:  Texas Tech University Press, 2005)

           

D.L. Birchfield, The Encyclopedia of North American Indians, (New York:  Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 1997) 

Gregory Michno, Encyclopedia of Indian Wars: Western Battles and Skirmishes, 1850-1890, (Missoula: Mountain Press Publishing Co., 2003)

Jason Hook and Martin Pegler, To Live and Die in the West:  The Frontier Wars 1860-1890, (Oxford:  Osprey Publishing, 1999)

           

Odie B. Faulk, The Geronimo Campaign, (New York:  Oxford University Press, 1969)

           

             

Battle At Cibecue Creek

The year was 1881 and the time of year was mid-May, a chief and medicine man Nock-ay-det-klinne moved to the Cibecue creek area of the White Mountain Apache reservation for the summer. About a month after setting up their summer camp, reports came in to Fort Apache that Nock-ay-det-klinne was holding meetings stating that he was going to raise two chiefs who were recently killed from the dead. “The reports said that the corpses of the chiefs were partly out of their graves and were resurrected to the knees and ‘visible to all Indians.’” Here is a letter written to the commissioner of Indian affairs from Joseph C. Tiffany describing the events seen by Albert D. Sterling, chief of the San Carlos Indian Police,

Considerable excitement had been caused by a medicine man who had given out word that he was going to bring two chiefs who had been killed during the year (Di-ab-a-lo and es-ki-o-le) to life and when he did he was going to be a ruler of the Indians as he would be a greater man than the Great and he would take care of the Indians and kill the white people in the agency and etc. I sent scouts up to find out the truth of the report, as he had sent works to the Indians he had them alive up to the knees and I felt sure there was something wrong. They went and the followers tried to make them believe the man was talking to him but they would not hear what he said. They told him he hid and would come and tell me so. The Indians up at Cibicu said if he fooled them they would kill him. I have sent the scouts up to bring him in if they can find him. I shall make an example of him in order to deter and such foolishness, as it excited a great many foolish young warriors and bucks to the detriment of good order and the peace of the reserve(Collins, Tiffany's letter to commissioner of Indian affairs).

At this point Tiffany did not see any reason in arresting Nock-ay-det-klinne since he was only tricking the chiefs into giving him gifts. Instead of attempting to arrest him Tiffany simply informed the three chiefs of his lying ways and that they should not believe anything he says, the chiefs agreed to this and on return to the camp Nock-ay-det-klinne knowing they would forcefully take back the gifts announced new details. He announced that these dead could not be brought back until the whites were driven out of the country, this worked in gaining back the trust of the chiefs and the people. The time after this the Indians became very proud and excited about these future events promised to them telling farmers they “Would fight soon and get even with him.” Col. Eugene Asa Carr later received a letter from Tiffany stating,

Sam Bowman thinks the White Mountain will break out when they have their corn gathered and cached. Hurrle thinks same, says they are making sacrifices. Indian doctor puts food in medicine lodge and pretends that the dead come and eat it, says that Indians think this doctor will be the head of all Indians; that he says the ground will turn over, the dead will rise and the Indians [will] be above the whites; that they will have possession of this post, that the soldiers will have to give up their horses to them, etc.

Hurrle says they intend to have another dance here in Pedro’s camp a week from next Saturday night which will be the 20^th. It might be well to arrest the Indian Doctor and send him to Alcatraz, but I would not like to take the responsibility as it might precipitate a war. Sam Bowman thinks our company of scouts will break when the others do. He says there is another medicine man at work also(Collins,Carr's letter to Tiffany).

After receiving this letter Carr also received a letter from General Orlando Bolivar Willcox stating that Carr was to arrest Nock-ay-det-klinne “if you deem it necessary, to prevent trouble, after consultation with the agent at San Carlos.” When Carr was ordered to arrest Nock-ay-det-klinne the only soldiers he had were the soldiers stationed at Fort Apache, this worried him because some of these troops were men that lived on the apache reservation themselves and had been attending to the dances and rituals put on by Nock-ay-det-klinne and while in the past they had been quick to communicate anything unlawful taking place were very uncommunicative about these events as stated by Second Lieutenant Thomas Cruse who commanded Company A (Apache Scouts). Carr later on August 10^th asked Cruse about the loyalty of his troops and Cruse responded with “he entirely distrusts his scouts in event of the rising of the White Mountains and believed all of nearly all would go with the enemy and recommended their discharge.(Collins, Cruse quote)” Carr later telegraphs for permission to discharge the company but the lines go down and he does receive a telegraph back saying he can until 2 and half weeks after he returns from Cibecue. Carr decided to take the scouts only to find Nock-ay-det-klinne and later states that if not for them he would never have been able to find him. Carr then sent Cruse and some troops forward to find Nock-ay-det-klinne’s campsite, Carr later came to the campsite to meet with Nock-ay-det-klinne in person. Here Carr recites how the event happened,

I told him through the interpreter what I had come for, as I had told the scouts the night before. This was told him in the presence of the other Indians, in their own language, so all should understand. I then told him I would treat him as a friend till those charges had been investigated and if not true he would be released. He had already denied them. he showed me a pass from the agent for himself and others to plant corn on Cibicu for 60 days, dated May 13^th and extended July 13^th for another 60 days.

         I told him the agent wanted me to bring him in to talk & etc. he made [an] excuse for not coming before, that he had a patient to attend to, and the Indians would have blamed him if he had left the sick man; but said he had cured him, and he had gone home this morning and he, Nock-ay-det-klinne, was now ready to go with me. I told him that was all right and if it was all explained he would be released in a few days. I then ordered a guard detailed; told him who was in charge of that, Sergeant McDonald, Troop E, 6^th Cavalry; that if he tried to escape he would be killed. He smiled and said he did not want to escape, he was perfectly willing to go.

         I then told him that if there were an attempt at rescue he would be killed. He smiled at that also, and said no one would attempt to rescue him. I also told him he could take part of his family along with him.

         This talk was all in the presence of other Indians, purposely to reassure them and make a good care to their minds. Mose at times repeated and explained, when he did not seem to catch the meaning of Interpreter Hurrle.

         I thought that the possession of his person, as a hostage, would make them particularly careful not to bring on a collision(Collins, Carr recollecting meeting with medicine man).

            Once the men started to head out Carr took one half of his troops and marched ahead, followed by Cruse and his men along with Nock-ay-det-klinne and his guard. As they were traveling along Apaches would appear out of the surrounding areas and would go with the caravan. Cruse noticed that all of these men seemed to be prepared for battle but thought nothing of it for he knew some of them personally and others were talking with the scouts with him as well on a personal level. As the scouts were making camp they began to make war cries and loud noises and turned toward Troop D who had already begun to prepare for camp for the night and opened fire. After the Foreign Indians started firing the scout apaches had also begun to fire at the Troop D along with them. Once the initial firing had stopped the scouts and foreign Apaches dropped down the mesa and the Troop D formed a defensive formation behind whatever they could find, mostly saddles, and began to prepare for the battle. Once they had opened fire back at the Indians, the Indians then retreated to the brush at the bottom of the mesa. Carr seeing this rushed to Stanton and ordered him to take his Troop E and rush the left flank of the brush to confuse and dismantle the Indians themselves, then Carr later said, “Saved the day.(Collins)” the Indians then retreated from the campsite. During the first 15 minutes of the shooting Nock-ay-det-klinne had attempted to make an escape, while even being shot in the leg Sergeant McDonald then shot Nock-ay-det-klinne through both of his thighs, trumpeter William O. Benites, seeing he was still alive, shot Nock-ay-det-klinne in the neck. Once the battle was over the men buried the dead and returned to Fort Apache, to prepare for the future hostilities that followed the battle. After returning to the Fort Carr heard word that hostile Apaches had been killing farmers and a group of Mormons attempting to cross the Apache Road even though warned not too.at about 2P.M. the Indians began to fire into the Post from all sides. Moving closer to the mill just outside of the Post Carr ordered some men to go stop the Indians from taking the mill and they did so preventing the Indians from moving any closer. The Indians continued firing into the post with no affects and returned to the mountains after failing the attack on the fort.(Collins) After this failed attempt at breaking into the Fort the Indians the attacks on the fort came to a stop.

Prezi 

Works Cited

Col. Eugene A. Carr, sketch of the Cibecue battlefield. 1882, unknown. From: Apache Nightmare: The Battle at Cibecue Creek, (university of Oklahoma Press, 1999).

Charles Collins, Apache Nightmare: The Battle at Cibecue Creek, (University of Oklahoma Press, 1999)

Willian B. Kessel, “The Battle of Cibecue and its Aftermath: a White Mountain Apache’s Account,” Ethno history; Spring74, Vol. 21 Issue 2, p123-134

Charles Collins, Apache Nightmare: The battle at Cibecue Creek (University of Oklahoma Press: Norman) pg. 15-16

Charles Collins, Apache Nightmare: The Battle at Cibecue Creek, Letter from Tiffany to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, September 9, 1881.

Charles Collins, Apache Nightmare: The Battle at Cibecue Creek, Pg.20. Tiffany to Carr, Aug. 8, 1881.

Charles Collins, Apache Nightmare: The Battle at Cibecue Creek, Pg. 22. Carr wired to Tiffany, Aug. 10, 1881.

Charles Collins, Apache Nightmare: The Battle at Cibecue Creek, Pg. 23. Willcox wired to Carr, Aug. 13, 1881.

Charles Collins, Apache Nightmare: The Battle at Cibecue Creek, Pg. 32-33. Quote of Cruse, Aug. 10, 1881.

Charles Collins, Apache Nightmare: The Battle at Cibecue Creek, Pg. 44. Carr recollecting meeting with medicine man, Nov. 2, 1881.